The Rigors of Colonial-Era Travel

Much-romanticized view of traveling through Cumberland Gap

Planes, trains, and automobiles … none of those had been invented yet during America’s colonial era. So how did people get around?

The most obvious method is on horseback, or by carriage or wagon. But not every manner of conveyance was suitable for every kind of journey.

Freight, for instance, was most likely carried by horse-drawn wagon or ox-drawn cart, which I discussed in another post. The oxen were most often driven by use of a long, slender rod and verbal commands, with the drover walking alongside, but horses were driven from the seat of the wagon. On a long journey with larger numbers of people, however, the able-bodied would walk to save exertion on the horses, leaving only the infirm or small children to ride.

Both ox-carts and wagons required a proper road for passage, thus the term wagon road to distinguish from a bridle path, where walking or mounted on horseback was required. Carriages or coaches needed even better roads.

So, in cities and towns, and in well-populated areas with good roads, people could be free to use coaches or carts of varying sizes without too much worry. But what about when folk desired to travel to, say, the wilderness? How did they manage to get there?

This was a question I had to explore while planning my upcoming novel The Cumberland Bride, which traces the journey of one fictional party of settlers from eastern Tennessee up into the wilds of Kentucky. First I had to figure out exactly when the Wilderness Road was opened for wagon travel. At the time my story is set, 1794, the route had been improved to a wagon road from southwestern Virginia, across east Tennessee and up to Cumberland Gap, but northward the way was still too rugged for wagon travel.

People had to pack things, then, onto horses and mules, and either ride horseback and walk. They’d often put small children or mothers with babies aboard the pack horses, but for the most part people made the journey on foot. They’d face rocky terrain, fallen trees, steep hills, muddy ground, creeks and rivers of varying widths and depths, wetlands, mud flats, and sand pits, as well as dangers from wild animals and hostile natives. They risked frostbite, sunstroke, heat exhaustion, and other injury and illness, including a nasty condition called “foot scald” if they walked too long in wet shoes.

Travel on good roads by coach was still no easy affair. Long hours of bouncing and jostling often made many prefer to be directly on horseback, and I think I’d have agreed with them, even with my aging body!

We moderns like to think, however, that we could be tough, but I’m continually amazed at the tenacity and fortitude of folk who traveled long distances in those days before the comparatively “easy” travel methods of the present. It's incredible the lengths our ancestors went to, to try to make a better life for themselves and their children.

This Month in Colonial History: September

The Great Fire of London, unknown painter

1:  The death of King Louis XIV of France (the “Sun King”), who had ruled since age 5 and succeeded by his 5-year-old great-grandson, Louis XV.

2:  The Great Fire of London is started. More than 13,000 houses destroyed over 3 days, but supposedly only 6 lives lost. (1666)

2:  “The British ended their use of the Julian calendar, switching instead to the Gregorian calendar, resulting in a major adjustment as Wednesday, September 2, was followed by Thursday, September 14. The correction resulted in rioting by people who felt cheated and demanded the missing eleven days back.” (1752)

2:  The U.S. Treasury is established. (1789)

3:  The Treaty of Paris is signed, formally ending the American Revolution, by John Adams, Ben Franklin, and John Jay. (1783)

4:  Navigator Henry Hudson discovers the island of Manhattan. (1609)

4:  El Pueblo de la Reina de Los Angeles, or the Town of the Queen of the Angels, is founded by the Spanish governor of California, later to be known simply as Los Angeles. (1781)

5:  Russian Czar Peter the Great imposes a tax on beards. (1698)

5:  The First Continental Congress assembled in Philadelphia. Every colony represented except for Georgia. (1774)

6:  The Mayflower sets sail from Plymouth, England, after many trials and a few false starts, and still more unthinkable trials to come. Still, as leader William Bradford wrote, they “commited them selves to the will of God, and resolved to proseede” to the New World. (1620)

Marquis de Lafayette

6:  The birth of Marquis de Lafayette (1757-1834) in Chavaniac, France.

7:  The birth of Queen Elizabeth I (1533-1603) in Greenwich Palace, daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn.

8:  First Catholic settlement in America founded at St. Augustine, Florida, by Spaniard Don Pedro Menendez de Aviles. (1565)

9:  The United Colonies becomes the United States. (1776)

13:  New York City becomes the capitol of the United States. (1788)

14:  Composer George Frederick Handel finishes Messiah after 23 straight days of work. (1741)

14:  Napoleon enters a burning Moscow at the beginning of his disastrous Russian campaign. Fewer than 20,000 men of his original 500,000 survive. (1812)

14:  Francis Scott-Key composes the lyrics to “The Star Spangled Banner.” (1814)

15:  The birth of James Fenimore Cooper (1789-1851) in Burlington, New Jersey.

16:  “Mexico's break from Spain began in the town of Dolores Hidalgo as Father Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla rang his church's bells and exhorted local Indians to ‘recover from the hated Spaniards the land stolen from your forefathers...’” (1810)

16:  “A detachment of Marines under Major Daniel Carmick from the Naval Station at New Orleans, together with an Army detachment, destroyed a pirate stronghold at Barataria, on the Island of Grande Terre, near New Orleans.” (1814)

17:  The U.S. Constitution is unanimously approved by delegates from 12 states. (1787)

18:  Chile declared its independence from Spain after 269 years as a colony. (1810)

22:  Nathan Hale executed for spying. “I only regret that I have but one life to lose for my country.” (1776)

22:  Birth of Michael Faraday (1791-1867), discoverer of electromagnetic induction (moving a magnet through a coil of wire produces a current). Thus electric generators are developed.

25:  Sighting of the Pacific Ocean by Spanish explorer Vasco Nunez de Balboa, after crossing the Isthmus of Panama. (1513)

25:  Publication of the first American newspaper. “A single edition of Publick Occurrences Both Foreign and Domestick appeared in Boston, Massachusetts. However, British authorities considered the newspaper offensive and ordered its immediate suppression.” (1690)

25:  Ratification of the Bill of Rights. (1789)

26:  Birth of Johnny Appleseed, as John Chapman (1774-1845) in Leominster, Massachusetts.

26:  The U.S. Postal Service was founded. (1789)

Sam Adams, 1772, by Copley

27:  Birth of Samuel Adams (1722-1803) in Boston, Massachusetts.

28:  Duke William of Normandy begins the conquest of England at Pevensey, Sussex. (1066) Relevant to the colonial era because, well, Britain. :-)

28: Discovery of California by Portuguese navigator Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo upon his arrival at San Diego Bay. (1542)

29:  U.S. Army created by Congress, with just 1,000 enlisted men and officers. (1789)

  My thanks to The History Place, Holiday Insights, Marine Corps University, Smithsonian Magazine, and Wikipedia. :)

This Month in Colonial History: June

King George III of England, 1762

Time for the June edition of familiar and not-so-familiar colonial events!

1 – The term “Don't give up the ship!” is coined by Captain James Lawrence, U.S. Chesapeake. (1813)

2 – Birth of the Marquis de Sade (1740-1814), whose violence and cruelty led to the term sadism, defined as gratification in inflicting pain. (1740)

2 – First U.S. tour of PT Barnum’s circus. (1835)

4 – King George III (1738-1820) is born. Yes, this was THAT King George.

5 – Birth of Scots economist and philosopher Adam Smith (1723-1790), whose An Enquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (published 1776) deeply influenced modern economic theory.

5 – First sustained hot-air balloon flight, Annonay, France. (1783)

6 – Birth of Nathan Hale (1755-1776), American patriot and spy. “I only regret that I have but one life to lose for my country.”

7 – The United Colonies changes its name to The United States. (1775)

10 – Dutch colonists settle on Manhattan Island (1610)

Pine Tree Shilling, designed by John Hull

10 – The first mint is opened in America, in defiance of English colonial law, by silversmith John Hull. (1652)

10 – Benjamin Franklin flies a kite in a lightning storm and discovers electricity.  (1752)

13 – Birth of American Army General Winfield Scott (1786-1866) was born in Petersburg, Virginia. Nicknamed "Old Fuss and Feathers" because of his formality, he served in three wars: the War of 1812, the Mexican War, and the American Civil War.

14 – The U.S. Army is formed. (1775)

14 – Introduction by John Adams of a resolution before Congress mandating a United States flag, stating, "...that the flag of the thirteen United States shall be thirteen stripes, alternate red and white; that the union be thirteen stars, white on a blue field, representing a new constellation." (1777)

15 – George Washington is appointed the Commander-in-Chief of the U.S. Army. (1775)

17 – King John signs the Magna Carta. (1215)

Rubens self portrait, 1623

18 – The U.S. Senate votes in favor of a declaration of war against Great Britain, which is officially proclaimed by President Madison the following day. (1812)

18 – Crushing defeat of Napoleon at Waterloo, ending 23 years of warfare between France and the rest of Europe. (1815)

28 – Birth of Flemish painter and diplomat Peter Paul Rubens (1577-1640). Not only considered the master artist of his day, but also skilled in science and politics and spoke seven languages.

28 – Birth of philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778).

My gratitude as always to The History Place and Holiday Insights.

This Month in Colonial History: May

Penny Black--the first postage stamp

I bring you the May edition of highlights of colonial history ...

1 – England and Scotland unite to form Great Britain. Wales was already united to England, and Ireland would later be thrown into the mix.  (1707)

1 – The first adhesive postage stamp released in England. Thus ending the colonial/Federal era ... JUST KIDDING!!!! (1840)

3 – St. Iago, the island later known as Jamaica, discovered by Christopher Columbus. (1494)

4 – The sale of Manhattan Island takes place, for the sum of $24 in cloth & buttons. (1626)

7 – The first-ever inaugural ball! Can you guess who it was in honor of? (Hint ... first President and his wife ...) (1789)

8 – The establishment of the U.S. Post Office. (1794)

12 – In the category of obscure things that we’re glad exist ... the flush toilet is patented. (1792)

14 – The first permanent English settlement in the New World is established, led by John Smith, at Jamestown, Virginia. (1607)

14 – Dr. Edward Jenner develops the smallpox vaccine. (1796)

14 – Lewis and Clark set out from St. Louis on an expedition to explore the Northwest. It would take them a year and a half to reach the Pacific Ocean and then almost another two to return. (1804)

17 – The New York Stock Exchange is established by two dozen merchants and brokers. (1792)

18 – Napoleon Bonaparte becomes Emperor of France. (1804)

22 – Former Vice President Aaron Burr is tried for treason and acquitted. (1807)

24 – Mary Hale of Boston writes the nursery rhyme "Mary Had a Little Lamb." (1830)

25 – Delegates from seven states, constituting a quorum, gather in Philadelphia for the Constitutional Convention. (1787)

27 – The first execution of the Salem witch trials takes place (Achsah Young). (1647)

Peter I (aka "the Great"), 1698

28 – Birth of William Pitt the Younger (1759-1806), who became Prime Minister of Britain at a mere 24 years of age, and with his understanding of economics helped Britain reduce her debt from the American Revolution.

29 – Restoration of the English monarchy by Charles II, after several years of Oliver Cromwell’s rule. (1660)

29 – Birth of Patrick Henry (1736-1799). Famous for his speech, “... give me liberty or give me death!”

30 – Birth of Peter the Great of Russia (1672-1725). Credited with many reforms and basically creating the Russian empire.

30 – Publication of the first daily newspaper in America, the Philadelphia Evening Post. (1783)

My thanks to The History Place and Holiday Insights.

This Month In Colonial History: April

Washington Irving meeting George Washington

It's that time again!

1: Oliver Pollack invents the dollar sign: $ (1778)

2: Spanish explorer Ponce De Leon sights Florida for the first time, and after landing at what is now St. Augustine, claims it for the Spanish Crown. (St. Augustine has the distinction of being the continental US’s oldest city.) (1513)

2: Congress passes the Coinage Act, establishing the U.S. Mint. (1792)

3: Birth of American folk writer Washington Irving (1783-1859) in New York City.

By George Bernard Butler, jr. - Historic Hudson Valley, Public Domain, Link

7: Uprising by 27 enslaved Africans. The state militia was called out to deal with the situation; 6 slaves committed suicide and 21 were executed. (1712)

9: French explorer LaSalle reaches the Mississippi river. (1691)

13: Birth of Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826) in Albemarle County, Virginia.

14: First abolitionist society in America founded in Philadelphia. (1775)

14: First American Dictionary of the English Language published by Noah Webster. (1828) Until this time, spelling was not standardized, even among the educated.

15: First school for the deaf established in Hartford, Connecticut, by Thomas H. Gallaudet and Laurent Clerc. (1817)

18: “The Red Coats are coming!” Famous “midnight ride” by Paul Revere--and William Dawes--from Charlestown to Lexington and Concord, Massachusetts, on the eve of what is marked by many as the beginning of the American Revolution. (1775)

19: The Revolutionary War begins at Lexington, Massachusetts. (1775)

24: The founding of the Library of Congress in Washington, DC. (1800)

27: First Lieutenant Presley N. O'Bannon, who with seven other Marines was part of a force of Greeks and Arabs led by American Consul William Eaton, raised the United States flag for the first time over a conquered fortress of the Old World at Derne, a stronghold of the Tripolitan pirates. Two Marines were killed and one wounded in the assault on the walled city. (1805, from www.usmcu.edu)

First Inauguration of George Washington

28: Birth of James Monroe (1758-1831), our 5th US President, in Westmoreland County, Virginia.

30: The presidential oath of office administered for the first time ever, to George Washington. (1789)


My thanks to The History Place, Holiday Insights, and Marine Corps University.

The Colonial Kitchen

by Tamera Lynn Kraft

I googled Colonial kitchens to research this article, and when I saw the results, I laughed. An HGTV or home decor site's colonial kitchen is nothing like what the well stocked kitchen of the 1700s looked like.There were no stoves, and the kitchens were smaller than many apartment size kitchens today.

The fireplace was the central part of the colonial kitchen. Sometimes they would be as wide as ten feet and cover an entire wall. The larger fireplaces would have a bench built into them. In the late 1700s, when wood became scarce in populated areas, the fireplaces became smaller, but they were still a central part of the colonial home. Many of these fireplaces had cast iron back to protect them from the heat. Sometimes there would be many small fires instead of one large fire to regulate the heat of each dish being cooked.

Originally all cooking was done over the open fire, but eventually bee shaped brick or stone ovens with domed roofs were built into the fireplace to do baking. Some fireplaces had small opening beneath the ovens that served as warming ovens. A fire would be started in the oven, then as it died down, the ashes would be swept out and the food would be placed in the oven.

Some homes had spits to skewer meat on. A hand crank would turn the spit. Most homes had an iron crane over the fireplace to hang pots and kettles on. Sometimes wooden lugs made out of green wood would be used instead. Pots hung on the cranes with pot hooks, trammels, or chains with large links. The crane would swing from side to side, and the pot could be hung on various spots on the crane.

Fires were never allowed to go out. At nights, a curfew made of brass or copper would be placed over the embers. In the morning, wood would be laid on the embers, and they would be poked with fireplace forks and shovels. A blow tube would be used as a bellow to fan the flame.

The kitchen usually had a variety of pots, pans, kettles, and skillets. Most homes had tin plates and wooden utensils that they shared at meal time. The wooden table in the center of the room would serve as the only seating area other than the floor.

Very few colonial homes had parlor. Some consisted of on room which was the kitchen. Even if a colonial home had bedrooms, the family would spend most of their time in the kitchen. When someone was sick, a bed or mattress in the kitchen served as a sick bed where the sick person could stay warm close to the fire and the rest of the family could see to his needs. The kitchen was the center of colonial life.

This Month in Colonial History: March

It's time for the March edition of "This Month in Colonial History." Enjoy!

1:  Articles of Confederation are formally ratified in 1781, establishing Congress as the governing body of the 13 American Colonies.

2:  In celebration of Samuel Houston’s birthday, Texas declared its independence from Mexico in 1836. Okay, so the two probably aren’t related, but it’s a fun fact to point out! Also, did you know that in his teens, Sam Houston ran away and lived with the Cherokee? 

4: Land grant in 1681 from King Charles II to William Penn, which later became ... you guessed it ... Pennsylvania.

4: The Constitution of the United States of America goes into effect in 1789.

5: The Boston Massacre in 1770 ... often presented as an action by overreactive British soldiers against a peaceable populace, but probably more likely the result of them cracking under provocation by a mob. The British were cleared in court of murder charges, after being defended by none other than John Adams.

9:  Birth in 1451 of Amerigo Vespucci, the Italian explorer for whom our continent is named.

11: (from www.usmcu.edu) “Marines participated in the action [of the American Revolution] when the Continental Navy frigate Boston, enroute to France, sighted, engaged, and captured the British merchant ship Martha. As the drum of the Boston beat to arms, John Adams seized a musket and joined the Marines on deck until the frigate's captain, Samuel Tucker, sent him below for safety.” (1778)

12: Colonization in 1609 of Bermuda, discovered after a ship bound for Virginia wrecked on its reefs.

13: Harvard University named after clergyman John Harvard, in 1639.

15: Birth in 1767 of Andrew Jackson, 7th U.S. President (1829-1837), hero of the War of 1812. One could argue that his harsh policies toward Native Americans were shaped by his witnessing the Cherokee conflict in the Carolina backcountry and British occupation of the same, since he was a mere lad of not quite 13 at the Battle of Camden, where he and his family resided.

16: Birth in 1751 of James Madison, 4th U.S President (1809-1817)

19: Birth in 1589 of William Bradford, governor of Plymouth Colony and credited with much of its success. First sailed with a group of 100 Pilgrims aboard the Mayflower, originally bound for Virginia.

21: Birth in 1685 of Johann Sebastian Bach, musical composer.

23: Patrick Henry’s famous declaration in 1775, “Give me liberty, or give me death!” Credited with sparking the powder keg of revolution in the colonies.

25: In 1807, the British Parliament abolished the slave trade.

28:  Nathaniel Briggs patents the washing machine in 1797.

31: Birth in 1596 of René Descartes, philosopher and mathematician.

31: Birth in 1732 of Franz Joseph Haydn, composer, who was a contemporary of Mozart and teacher to Beethoven.

My thanks to The History Place, Holiday Insights, and Marine Corps University.

A TRIBUTE ON VETERAN'S DAY and A DREAM REALIZED

 A TRIBUTE ON VETERAN'S DAY

Each year on November 11^th we acknowledge and express appreciation for all the men and women who have served or are serving our nation in the armed forces. This practice dates back to the eleventh hour of the eleventh day of the eleventh month when the armistice was declared at the end of World War I.

As someone who was raised in a military family and with two sons and a step-son-in-law currently serving, it is a day filled with humility and gratitude. As Americans, we enjoy liberty and so many freedoms only because others were and are willing to sacrifice. Many will spend vast amounts of time away from family and friends, work long hours under stressful conditions, and put themselves in harm’s way. Their service has preserved our union and allows us to pursue our plans and dreams. Take some time today and thank them.

A DREAM REALIZED

Five years ago, I was asked to submit a guest post for Colonial Quills.

Coming To America, September 16, 2011.

http://colonialquills.blogspot.com/2011/09/guest-post-by-janet-grunst-coming-to.html

It was a privilege to be invited to join this esteemed group of writers who love delving into our colonial history and sharing their knowledge with interested readers. In addition to learning so much from them, I’ve made some treasured friends.

Coming To America detailed how many Europeans without funds came to the colonies by becoming indentured servants, serving for a specified period of time in exchange for passage. This was a common method of emigration during the 17^th and 18^th centuries, and it was a subject that has fascinated me for many years. 

In the mid-eighties, I wrote a story about a woman who left Scotland in 1770 and traveled to Virginia as an indentured servant. And now after many years that story is being published. Its theme is forgiveness.

Here’s a peek into A Heart Set Free published by Lighthouse Publishing of the Carolinas.

In 1770, Heather Douglas is desperate to escape a brewing scandal in her native Scotland. Penniless and hoping for a fresh start far away, she signs a seven-year indenture and boards a British merchant vessel headed to Virginia.

Widowed planter Matthew Stewart needs someone to help raise his two young children. The tall blond standing on the Alexandria quay doesn’t look like much after her harrowing sea voyage, but there’s a refinement about her that her filthy clothing cannot hide. Could God be leading him to take this unknown indentured servant as his wife?

When Matthew purchases Heather’s indenture, marries her, and takes her to his farm, she faces new and constant challenges. And Matthew wonders if they can ever bridge their differences and make a life together.

It is in the Virginia countryside that Heather begins her greatest journey, one of self-discovery and of maturing faith. Here, she discovers that her emotional and spiritual scars bind her far more than her indenture . . . and love will finally set her heart free. 

I’m delighted that A Heart Set Free will be released December 2^nd, 2016 and will be found at:

http://Amazon.com

http://www.barnesandnoble.com/

Janet S. Grunst is a wife, mother of two sons, and grandmother of eight who lives in the historic triangle of Virginia (Williamsburg, Jamestown, Yorktown) with her. A lifelong student of history, she has been fortunate to live overseas as well as throughout the United States. Her love of writing fiction grew out of a desire to share stories that communicate the truths of the Christian faith, as well as entertain and bring inspiration, healing, and hope to the reader. 

Janet Grunst
http://JanetGrunst.com                                                                                                                   https://www.facebook.com/Janet-Grunst-Author-385405948228216/                            http://colonialquills.blogspot.com/
Represented By Linda S. Glaz
Hartline Literary Agency